Lat Human Standing

The big question is why are we the only species of humans here on earth? how come we don't see the Neanderthals standing next to us today? Why did they die out? We have about 20 different human ancestors. 50,000 years ago there were about 4 different types of human living at the same time. But today we are just one species. So when Homo sapiens moved into the Middle East Homo erects died out. And when Homo sapiens moved into Europe the Neanderthals died out, but why? Neanderthals had bigger brains than ours they were the more advanced humans until we arrived. People use to think that neanderthals did not looked like us and were not very smart. Some archaeologists have found the bones of a neanderthal boy. They thought he was around 11 or 12 years old when he died but really he was only 8. Here we can see that he grew up quicker but had less time for the brain to develop. Parts of the neanderthal brain was smallr and they had limited thinking power. Also neaderthals were carnivors so they rarley ate any plants. Another way we can see how our thinking have evolved is if we look at some of tools for example the neanderthals had heavy spears so they could not carry that many and it would be very hard for them to throw it. But Homo sapiens had light spears so they could carry many and they could get a good throw. Europe also had very wild climates so it was very hard for the neanderthals to survive. When Homo sapiens came some of them lived by the sea, archaeologists believe that could have changed them. By looking at their diet they could see they collected selfish, differnt fruits, and plants. They also made different types of tools which helped them get more out of their environment. This is why we are not with neanderthals or Homo erectus today, climates, tools, diet all explain how we evolved and why we are the last human's standing.


"Last Human Stnading ." Becoming Huamn. PBS NOVA. 31 Aug. 2011. Television.

From Grunts to Grammar

From Grunts to Grammar:
They Evolution of Language



English speakers understand language by the order they are in. Grammar in writing makes it easier for us to explain things. But the big question is how did humans learn to talk this way? The earliest human is Homo habilis. Around 2 and a half years ago we started to use speech. For us to have the development in changes of voice is in the larynx (voice box). It has vocal cords that let us make sound form our throats. Most mammals they have their larynx high so their range of sound is limited. Also most mammals are nose breathers. but we can also breath through our mouths. When they chased animals it was easy for them to keep on running and not lose breath because when they breathed through their mouths to let more air in and out of the lungs. So for us to start being able to develop language all the pieces in the brain and throat were put together.

Paleoantlropologists need to look for signs of communication because we cannot find evidence of language back then. So how can we find information on how they communicated to other members of the tribe? First we would not start using full language for making tools because if you look at chimpanzees' they picked leaves off sticks then stuck the stick down a ant hill and then stick it in their mouths and they got a nice tasty snack and they didn't have to use language to do that. But then some tools had certain steps which would maybe require language. We communicated in three different ways sound, hand motions, and facial expressions. And we still all use these today for example people that are deaf they use hand motions to communicate. So if we know how they communitcated then when did they start to communicate? From a small population in Africa, Homo sapiens spreaded out into the world. When they migrated to Asia it was probably around 60,000 t0 80,000 years ago. But migrating to there probably did not need t0 much language. But when they went to Australia, at some point there was water they would need to cross so to cross it they would have to make some type of boat and to do that you would need to use language. So this shows how language started and how it has changed over time.

Bibliography

Miller, Jeanne. "From Grunts to Grammar." Odyssey: Adventures in Science  Oct. 2009 : 34, 35, 36 . 

     Print. 

Taming Fire

Taming Fire
By: Mary Beth Cox
Odyssey magazine

Fire was a wonderful thing that humans have discovered. Fire is one thing that helps us live today. Prehistoric people thought that fire was scary until they realized it can help them. Wildfire is caused by nature, things like lightning, thunderstorms, molten material from volcanoes, all can make and cause fire. But back then when a wildfire was created and was buring down everything, humans and animals did not have fire fighter or lots of water to put it out, they just had to run away or else they would burn and die. Archaeologists have found hearths at campsites in Europe. Hearths are rocks that we use to put around the fires. When we make are own fire it is called a hearth fire.The differnece between hearth fires and wildfires is that hearth fires heats objects to higher temperatuers which are higher than wildfires. Animal bones can be analyzed so we can see the chemical changes and see if the temperature is higher or lower. At Swartkrans caves in South Africa, they found burnt animal bones, and saw it was exposed to higher temperatures. That shows that humans were cooking their meat. They new how to use the fire but not exactly make it from scratch. So we started to use fire over 1,000,000 years ago. Fire was good for many different things, first it cooked meat which made it easier for us to digest. Second it helped us stay warm in cold temperatures. Third, it gave us light when it was dark so we could still stay up even when the sun went down. And lastly it protected them from predators. Fire helped us stay alive, it helped our species not die out. All these things that fire did are the things that helped us live today.

Bibliography

Cox, Mary Beth. "Taming Fire The frist scientist?" odyssey magazine : 29, 30 . Rpt. in The frist 

     scientist . N.p.: n.p., n.d. N. pag. Print. 

Becoming Human: Birth of Humanity

Becoming Human: Birth of Humanity
(PBS NOVA DOCUMENTARY)

Homo Erectus was probably one of the most successful of the different hominids. Homo erectus had a big brain but a small mouth. Their arms were thinner and their legs grew taller. The Leeky's found a skull fragment and found more and could see that it was a H. erectus skull then he found more of the body. H. erectus looks more like humans than apes. By looking at the skeleton they could see that it was a boy and about 14 they could also tell at the time the bones were still growing. But then by looking at his teeth they could see that the boy was actually 8 years old. But an 8 year old is usually not that tall. So in growing they were very related to the apes because apes grow fast very quickly compared to humans. To make tools they chipped bits of rock of stones and then making in a tool to chop things. For them to live and have enough energy they would need to eat many plants but then they could eat meat which would give them more energy. Homo erectus were not at the top of the food chain, so how did they kill an animal when the animal is able to kill them? First Homo erectus was built for running. But it would be hard for them to run with all the hair they have on their bodies so did they have that much hair? We do not have hair from when they were alive so we need to look at something different and that would be lice. Because all mammals, birds, and even fish have lice. By looking at the different lice we can see when they started to lose their hair which was 3 million years ago. Mammals today the only way they can cool down is by panting. But humans we sweat which helps us cool down. So when mammals are catching their pray they cannot pant while catching so they can only short amounts of sprints and then need to rest.

Homo erectus also started to build fires. A scientist beleives that we started to learn how to share and communicate by sitting around the fire waiting for the food to cook. We have also learned how to be caring. Human mothers today will be happy to let other people that they know hold the baby and bond with it. But apes and monkey mothers do not let anyone hold their babies. Another piece of evidence to show how we cared is, some archaeologists have found a skull of an old man that has lost his teeth for 2 years. This shows that other members of the tribe must have feed him or even chewed the food for him. Learning to care for one another is probably a big reason of why Homo erectus was able to stay for a long time.

On Our Own Two Feet

On Our Own Two Feet
By: Stephen Whitt
Odyssey: Adventures in Science

We are the only animals that can walk on two feet. We are able to balance our whole bodies on two feet. Two things that we know for sure is that walking upright is very old because our ancestors have walked and also before we became humans we were still developing the brain. Chimpanzee's are not our ancestor! But they were related to our ancestors 6 million years ago. If you compare a human's skull to a chimps you could see that the human has a flater face and the chimp's face sticks out in the front. The human brain is much larger than a chimpanzee's. The skull of Australopithecus aferensis is the same type of skull as Lucy's. They lived around 3 million years ago halfway between human and chimps. A.aferensis skull looks more like a chimpanzee's. But their brain case is not as large as a chimpanzee's. In the back of a chimp's head there is a hole called foreman magnum, this allows the spinal cord to connect with the brain. The chimp also walks on fours, the spine angles up slightly but not straight up or down and angled back. Humans also have it but ours does not angle back, ours goes horizontal. Our hole for our spinal cord is at the bottom of the skull, ours is like this because we walk on two legs. A.aferensis theirs is horizontal like us! and at the bottom of the skull like us. This shows that they walked on two legs also. There are many different theories to why humans stood up and walked. C.Owen Lovejoy a scientist from Kent Sate University in Kent Ohio, has also got a theory. His theory is that hominids stood up and walked because it was easier when they were carry things like food. Another theory is that we stood up to cross hot savannas to reach forests. And the forests actually started to shrink because the temperatures went up. And the last theory is we stood and walked to cross rivers and streams. Today we still do not know for sure how we started to walk but walking has made a big difference in the world for humans.

Who's Who Among the Early Hominids

Who's Who Among the Early Humans?
By: Randall Susman
From: Odyssey Adventure in Science

Early humans are usually called "ape-men" because they share the same features as an ape and a human. Before we became human we had to go through many different changes. We had to evolve to adapt to our surroundings. There were many different hominids because they were all in different parts of the world and the world has many different physical features so wherever they were they had to evolve to adapt.
Sahelanthropus tchadensis was discoverd in 2001 it is 6-7 million years old. But it has more of an ape skull than a human skull so we think that it might be closer to apes than humans. Orrorin tugensis was first found in Kenya it is 6.1 and 5.8 million years old. By limb bones it shows that it climbed trees but it was still bipedal. Ardipithecus known as the found ape is, 4.4 million years old and was first found in Ethiopia 1994. It had small molar teeth and large front teeth. Paranthropus who is similar to man, had a large jaw, and there teeth shows that they had large chewing muscles they were very robust. It was also bipedal but it spent more time on the ground then A.afarensis and A. africanus. By studying the hands and feet of Paranthropus we can see that it mainly ate plants. But if you look at Australopithecus you can see it ate plants and meat. In South Africa in a lime stone cave they have frond Paranthropus fossils. Also by looking at their hands we can see that they could have made tools. Kenyapithecus platyops was first found in 2001 Northern Kenya but the skull is broken into many pieces. Their skull is similar to Homo rudolfensis skull.

Early Homo the earliest fossil found in East and South Africa. Had a large brain but small teeth and face. They also used simple tools. Homo Erectus known as the upright man so they were more advanced. Found in Africa, Europe , and Asia. They had a big brain but small mouth they had a thick skull bones, they were taller and heavier. They had round heads more like humans. Where Homo Erectus sites were they also found remains of elephant, horses, and hippo bones that shows that they hunted the also learned how to make fire. Homo Habilis known as the handy man also had a large brain. They had human feature in there hands and feet. They were bipedal and used tools. They were also tree climbers they usually climbed trees to sleep, escape danger, and forage food. Archaeologist have also found animal remains where the Homo Habilis were. Homo rudolfensis were around the same time as Homo Habilis. Big brain and flat face and cheek bones. Their molars and pre molars are bigger than Homo Habilis. Home georgicus close to Homo Habilis in brain size. 4 skeletons from Dmanisi show the differnce between the male and female. Homo floresiensis they were discovered on a island of Flores in Indonesia. There are not many of them. The most complet skeleton that archaeologist have found is female and 3 feet and 6 inches. And lastly Homo Neanderthalensis who mostly lived in Europe and Central Asia. Livid from 250,000 to 30,000 years ago. They had sophisticated stone tools. Had robust skeletons body size was equal to modern human.

Why We Study Human Origins

Why We Study Human Origins
By:Randall Susman
Calliope:Exploring World History

Historians wonder and ask questions to find out more about our past. People ask why did humans evolve? And where did humans come from? By asking and answering these questions we get more information about our past. A way we find out lots of information is fossils. Fossils tell us different stages hominids had to evolve to become human. Fossils tell us how hominids adapted to there surroundings. They tell us when there certain species was extinct or how old this hominid was when he or she died. In the 1800's Charles Darwin was the first to have the idea of plants and animals having to evolve to adapt to their surroundings. What evolution means according to the dictionary is: A gradual process in which something changes into a different and usually more complex or better form. People really started to believe and think about evoltion when Tomas Henry compared humans with apes. Then in 1925 Raymond Dart in Africa found the first hominid fossil and they could see that it was very similar to the human fossil more than a monkey fossil.Archaeologist have also found stone tools that have been shaoed into points which shows that the hominds started to hunt. And showing that they started to hunt also shows that they eat meat, which is a new food to their diet. So many historians came up with differnt theories about our ancestors people said that hominids "were tree-dwelling apes, or four legged knuckle-walkers or even bipeds that live in water". What bipeds or bipedal mean is: walking on two leggs for example humans we are bipedal we walk on two legs. So ideas, theories, fossils, and facts, if we put these all together we can uncover the mysteries of our past and we can learn even more from where human came from.

Susman, Randall. "Why We Study Human Origins." Calliope: Exploring World History Sept. 1999: 4-5. Print.

Who built Stonehenge and Why?

Stonehenge is a megalithic circle in Southern England. People say it is around 4,600 years ago. There are many different legends and theories about Stonehenge. We first know that stone henge was built before the pyramids. They have big stones in a circle and then little blue stones inside the circle with some other ones.

People think it could be a place to represent the dead. Because they think that the stone represent the dead. But then also nearby Stonehenge they have Woodhenge which is like a similar monument but made out of wood pillars. And the wood represented a place for the living. So they thought as if it was some sort if burial because near and next to Stonehenge they found lots of bones all broken up under the ground. By all the bones they can work out how many bodies there were. Most of the bones where from adult males that would be around the age of 25-40. Also they could tell that the people were fairly healthy. Archeologist has also found ancient tools which are antlers from a deer. Archeologist also think that before they put the stone into place that they shape it with other stones. These stones they weigh a lot so we wonder how they carried it all the way to Stonehenge. Some people think that maybe they used rope and ramps like they did in Egypt when building the pyramids. They have also found these types of ball all around the same size and different carvings on them, archaeologists also think that they could have maybe used that too for moving the stones.

Another theory of Stonehenge is that it could be an observatory. Because the stones line up in a way and line goes to the sun that rises on the shortest day of the year. Archaeologist are always trying to find and use different ways and think of different theories to try and find out how the people moved the rocks and why they put them there.

Human ancestors may put a twist in Orign Story

2 million year old bones and possible skin from a pair of primate fossils have been found they are the apelike species that may have given rise to the first humans. They are known as Australopithecus sedia, the ancient human ancestor that was discovered in the Malapa region of South Africa in 2008. Scientists think that these types of human species were capable of making tools. They think that they have found samples of fossilized skin. So this could be the first time any type of soft tissue has been recovered. They come from a time period which is very important called circa two million years ago, that we don’t know a lot about. A Sediba skeleton belongs to a male child in his early teens and there is a female around 30. The new studies have shown that they have an unusual mixture of human like traits. One of the particular pelvis of a male shows that they were able t stand upright. His ankles were also very human like but the heels were thin. But the scientists also think that still at that time that they were still climbing trees. The sediba’s were also able to create stone tools. Their brains were a lot like ours now but were only the quarter size of ours but they were a little larger than a chimpanzee’s. The sediba’s female had a few hand bones but the tips of four fingers and a wrist bone are missing. They had very long thumb compared to other fingers they had so they probably had really good grip. Good fossils help us fill I the things that we have suspected.

Huge gladiator school found in Austria

Archaeologists have found an ancient Roman gladiator school in Austria. It is almost as big as Rome’s Colosseum. This gladiator school features never before seen a wooden training dummy. And outside the gates they found a first known gladiator cemetery grounds. The school is absolutely huge. This newfound school is very important because it’s the only one of this size and scale to be found anywhere in the Roman provinces. The school was probably built at the same time as the adjacent 13,00-person amphitheater, which was made around A.D. 150 during the Roman Emperor was ruling Marcus Aurelius. This gladiator school is twice the size of Wal-Mart. There are tiny dormitories, heated floors, etc. Next to the training complex there is a walled field, or campus, which may have been housing for wild animals. And a place for exercising horses. This is information that I have learned about the gladiator school is Austria.

Archaeologists do many things to investigate ancient cultures. When archaeologists find objects in the ground they then make an archaeological record. So now they can learn more about the people from the past. The archaeological record of the objects on villages in the ground becomes sealed with layers within the earth. But then it might wear away and it might reveal something. They then examine the surface and then they dig to find the evidence. Once they know where they are going to dig they carfully remove each layer by layer. And they carefully record every location where they find an object. Artifacts give them many clue for different time periods in history. Then have been covering cities for thousands of years and they believe that the deepest layer is the oldest. When acraeologist try to find out how old things are they use two different types of methods cultural dating and scientific dating. For example if you reaserch about the Roman empire, written sources will tell you about the coin from roman times. The process of gathering information is cultural dating. To find out more about the roman coin you then compare it with other roman objects. Other two types of dating are absolute dating and relative dating because they can't always tell how old an object is. Pottery is a very good example because they made pottery in different time periods so it helps with relative dating. The oldest form in scientific dating is dendrochronology. Radiocarbon dating is when they measure to determine how old the object is. But they can only use it for once living things like wood and bones. Every living thing absorbs carbon so when it dies it stops.